Cyber-security is often a top national security priority. Many states have declared cyber-space a new domain of warfare, seeking to develop a military cyber-strategy. Governments’ national risk assessments now frequently put the threat of hostile cyber-attack on a par with natural disasters, international terrorism or nuclear attack. This has provoked much policy talk and concern about the future of conflict, as well as societies’ digital vulnerability.Moving into the 2020s, the ‘cyber club’ of proliferators is losing the exclusivity of the early 2000s. Over forty states have now publicly established a military cyber-command, including many countries in the West — the US, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Estonia — and elsewhere — Peru, Brazil, Vietnam, South Korea, Nigeria. At least another dozen have announced plans to establish such capability. ‘[An] insightful and expansive book for anyone interested in better understanding the present and future of cyber conflict.’ — International Affairs‘A refreshing contribution to cyber scholarship that will resonate with military and intelligence professionals. With a methodical analysis of the technical, organizational and policy challenges governments must surmount to employ offensive cyber operations with precise effect, Smeets argues that few states conduct such operations because they are incredibly difficult. Pundits, commentators and policymakers must read this book to temper both their fears and expectations.’ — Emily O. Goldman, US Cyber Command‘In the process of answering the book’s driving question – why do states struggle to develop a military cyber force? – the author offers rigorous theoretical and empirical analysis, as well as nuggets of wisdom for the policy community.’ — Survival‘If offensive cyber operations are cheap and easy, then cyberweapons should proliferate and cyberwar should escalate. Max Smeets demolishes these myths and reveals a more complicated, and more interesting, reality.’ — Jon R. Lindsay, Associate Professor, Georgia Institute of Technology, and author of Information Technology and Military Power